2013年10月22日 星期二

《美國頁岩油熱潮不再》, The Red Queen hypothesis,

爱丽丝梦游仙境- 维基百科,自由的百科全书
zh.wikipedia.org/zh-tw/爱丽丝梦游仙境 - 頁庫存檔 - 類似內容
她遇到三個嬉戲玩樂的紙牌僕人,他們正為討厭白玫瑰的紅心王后將樹上的白玫瑰塗
上紅色。接著,更多紙牌僕人、國王和王后都列隊進入了花園,連白兔先生也來了。
愛麗絲驚魂記:瘋狂再臨- 维基百科,自由的百科全书
zh.wikipedia.org/zh-tw/愛麗絲驚魂記:瘋狂再臨 - 頁庫存檔 - 類似內容
象徵:在前作,他象徵著精神病院的院長-折磨病患或讓病患成為手下的特徵,而折磨
愛麗絲的院長姪子則象徵著帽客的手下,阿呆和阿傻;在討伐紅心皇后時,紅心皇后 ...
《美國頁岩油熱潮不再》 目前美國每日產油780萬桶,是25年來的最高記錄。來自頁岩的原油降低了美國對進口石油的依賴,令該國處於1989年以來最接近能源自主的狀態。國際能源總署(IEA)去年預測,到2020年,美國將超越沙地阿拉伯,成為全球最大的產油國。 但美國當前的產油量能否持續,已經成為爭議話題。地質學家暨全球可持續發展研究總裁曉士研究過頁岩井的壽命周期。他表示:「紅心皇后症越來越嚴重。產量越高,你就需要越多油井來彌補產量之衰退。」 在北達科他州的巴肯頁岩區,一口名為「Robert Heuer 1-17R」的油井2004年5月投產時,出油量為2358桶。這產量證明巴肯的石油鑽探生意有利可圖,引發北達科他州的石油開採熱潮。該油井的產量第一年下跌69%。石油地質學家伯曼指出:「我認為頁岩熱潮是一場退休派對而非一場革命,這是最後一口氣。」 詳細內容: 《彭博商業周刊/中文版》全球經濟 2013.10.16 – 2013.10.22 | 第17期 
 
 
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 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Queen_hypothesis
 
The Red Queen hypothesis, also referred to as Red Queen's, Red Queen's race or The Red Queen Effect, is an evolutionary hypothesis which proposes that organisms must constantly adapt, evolve, and proliferate not merely to gain reproductive advantage, but also simply to survive while pitted against ever-evolving opposing organisms in an ever-changing environment. The Red Queen hypothesis intends to explain two different phenomena: the constant extinction rates as observed in the paleontological record caused by co-evolution between competing species[1] and the advantage of sexual reproduction at the level of individuals.[2]
The original idea of the Red Queen hypothesis (macroevolutionary) was given by Leigh Van Valen in order to explain the “Law of Extinction”.[1] Leigh Van Valen showed that in many populations the probability of extinction does not depend on the lifetime of this population. In addition, the probability of extinction is constant over millions of years for a given population. This could be explained by the coevolution. Indeed, an adaptation in a population of one species (e.g. predators, parasites ...) may change the selection pressure on a population of another species (e.g., prey, hosts), giving rise to an antagonistic coevolution. If this occurs reciprocally, a potential dynamic coevolution may result.[3] The phenomenon's name is derived from a statement that the Red Queen made to Alice in Lewis Carroll's Through the Looking-Glass in her explanation of the nature of Wonderland:
Now, here, you see, it takes all the running you can do, to keep in the same place.[4]
The macroevolutionary Red Queen. The linear relationship between number of genera and the logarithm of survival times suggests that the probability of extinction is constant over time. Redrawn from Leigh Van Valen (1973).
In another idea (microevolutionary), the Red Queen hypothesis is used by Bell to explain the evolution of sex,[2] by John Jaenike to explain the maintenance of sex [5] and W. D. Hamilton explain the role of sex in response to parasites.[6][7] In all cases, sexual reproduction confers species variability and a faster generational response to selection by making offspring genetically unique. Sexual species are able to improve their genotype in changing conditions. Consequently co-evolutionary interactions, between host and parasite for example, may select for sexual reproduction in hosts in order to reduce the risk of infection. Oscillations in genotype frequencies are observed between parasites and hosts in an antagonistic coevolutionary way without necessitating changes to the phenotype.

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